Rebecca Rosado: Marie Curie

Maria Salomea Sklodowska-Curie was born 7 November of 1867 in Poland and died 4 July of 1934 in France. She was the first woman who won a Nobel Prize and the only woman that won the Nobel Price twice. [3],[4] She began her interest in science by following her dad’s footsteps .Her father was a math and physics tutor. Because she was a woman, she could not attend a formal university but assisted to a “floating university”, a set of underground and secret place where she took classes Her main interests to study where physics, chemistry and mathematics. [2] For five years Maria worked as a tutor and a governess to earn money to go to the university. In 1891, she enrolled at the Sorbonne University in Paris, France. After she earned her master’s degree, Maria was searching for a large laboratory to work. Professor Jozef Kowalski introduced Pierre Curie to Maria. The passion between Maria and Pierre made them to decide to get married. On 26 July of 1895 Maria Sklodowska married Pierre Curie. In 1903, Marie Curie and Pierre Curie won the Nobel Prize in Physics. The prize share was ¼ for each one because Antoine Henri Becquerel also won it. [5] As stated by the Nobel Prize website, Marie and Pierre Curie won the Nobel because “in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Becquerel.” [1] It was a research of many years that made Pierre and Marie to won the Nobel. Before she knew about Pierre, Marie was conducting experiments on uranium rays, based by Becquerel’s works. However after Marie and Pierre got married, Pierre decided to abandon his work and help with Marie’s. She theorized that the rays remained constant because came from the element’s atomic structure. Marie Curie invented the term “radioactivity” to describe this phenomena. In 1897, Marie and Pierre welcomed their first child but this didn’t helped them stop with their research.  In 1898, both Marie and Pierre discovered a radioactive element called Polonium. In 1902 also discovered another radioactive element called Radium. [7]

In the same year that Pierre and Marie won the Nobel (1903), they welcomed their second child. In 1906, Pierre dies in an accident. Marie decided to become a professor and was the first female professor at Sorbonne University. In 1914 when World War I began, Marie Curie invented portable X-ray machines for the soldiers. In her finals year, Marie’s health was degrading. She always carried radioactive test tubes in her lab coat pocket. The prolonged exposure to radiation without proper protection made that in 1934 Marie Curie died of aplastic anemia. In 1995, Marie’s and Pierre’s remains where placed at the Pantheon in Paris, France. This place is where the greatest minds in France rest. Marie Curie was the only woman to be laid to rest there.  Irene Curie, Marie and Pierre Curie’s first child, followed her parent’s footsteps. In 1935, Irene and her husband won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on the synthesis of new radioactive elements. [6]

References

• [1] The Nobel Medal for Physics and Chemistry.

http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/medal.html (accessed November 30,2014)

• [2] Marie Curie-Biographical.

http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/marie-curie-bio.html (accessed November 30,2014)

• [3] Marie Curie- Facts. 

http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1911/marie-curie-facts.html (accessed November 30,2014)

• [4] The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911.

http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1911/ (accessed November 30,2014)

• [5] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1903.

http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/ (accessed November 30,2014)

• [6] Marie Curie Biography.

http://www.biography.com/people/marie-curie-9263538 (accessed November 30,2014)

• [7] Marie Curie: Facts and Biography.

http://www.livescience.com/38907-marie-curie-facts-biography.html

Wilfredo Joel Núñez Pacheco: Colonizing the Universe

In the late 1960's, America was the pioneering country in discovery. Coming off just landing Apollo 11 on the Moon and the first steps taken by Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin in its surface. This pioneering spirit was also fueled by the Cold War between the United States and Russia. But since the end of that era, the exploration of space has been put on hold taking with it the dreams of a nation. What are the next steps in the exploration of space? Scientists and physicists agree that the exploration of Mars should be the next objective. What problems does this challenge pose? In the following essay we shall discuss how the absence of an life sustaining atmosphere in this planet can cause major setbacks and how one British mathematician attempted to solve this problem.

The colonization of Mars brings forth many challenges. The two primary ones being the lack of a life sustaining atmosphere in Mars and that it would take about 150 to 300 days of interstellar travel to get there, depending the amount of fuel used. Also, because Mars is so far away, there is practically no room for mistakes. Because of the distance, any error could prove fatal because if the astronauts can't fix it immediately, there is no possible way of extracting them. Therefore, first we must make a small liveable habitat for our astronauts consisting of an oxygen rich atmosphere, food and drinkable water. At least one of this problems might have been solved by John Conway.

The computer simulation better known as "Life" was created by British mathematician, John Conway. "Life" is a cell automaton simulation system. Conway hypothesized that complex life could come about naturally from simple rules or parameters. These rules are:

1. Any live cell with less than two live neighbors dies, as if caused by under-population.

2. Any live cell with two or three live neighbors lives on to the next generation.

3. Any live cell with more than three live neighbors dies, as if by overcrowding.

4. Any dead cell with exactly three live neighbors becomes a live cell, as if by reproduction. 

The setting for this program is an infinite two-dimensional orthogonal grid which only requires one input in the beginning for the "evolution" to begin. Conway noticed that when this system was accelerated, not only would it put forth different patterns, but these patterns seemed to "take life". With this discovery, John Conway concluded that life can indeed come about from simple rules, rejecting the idea that the Universe needs a creator.

In summary, the "Life" system can be used to solve the problem in Mars if we were to implement it with life-forms or robots that can turn the iron oxide or rust in the atmosphere of Mars and turn it into oxygen, all this under a dome so that the amount of oxygen needed to eventually sustain life can be achieved quicker and can be managed efficiently for the arrival of our astronauts.

Iván A. Padilla: Wormhole Time Travel is now a Reality

Every human being, at least once in his or her lives, must have fantasized about time traveling. In the formulation of the theory of relativity, Einstein theorized the traversable wormholes existence. Since Einstein theorized the traversable wormholes existence, it has not been more than fiction. Some “theoretical physicists have proposed that they could act as portals into the future and the past or connect two distant regions of space”(O’Neill). Do wormholes exist in nature? Are we able to construct them? The answer to all these questions will definitely be given by time and a lot of experiments. But for now, wormhole time travel is a reality just if you are a photon “and even photons may be too much of a stretch for the hypothetical shortcut through space-time”(O’Neill).

Even though so far just photons may travel, there’s no doubt that this is the beginning of something great. The “theoretical physicist Luke Butcher of the University of Cambridge has revisited wormhole theory and potentially found a way to bridge these notoriously unstable entities.”(O’Neill). Luke Butcher has not been the only one who has believe in this,

“Physicist Kip Thorne, of the California Institute of Technology, theorized that to make a wormhole traversable — as in to actually make these spacetime shortcuts stable enough to travel through — some form of negative energy would be required. In the quantum world, this negative energy could come in the form of Casimir energy.” (O’Neill)

With more than one physicist conducting experiments about this phenomenon, it has taken a lot of credibility and hope of making the whole idea of a wormhole time traveling possible. Just imagine yourself going through a portal that will instantly take you to another place. The idea of wormhole time traveling sounds a little crazy right now, but it could definitely be a reality for large objects or even humans in the future. 

One of the greatest problems the physicists are having in their experiments is that the wormhole collapse when it is not long and narrow. So there is no possibility of time travel to a large mass or a human being so far. The stability of the wormholes depends on the configuration they has. What if it is that the perfect configuration has not been discovered yet? Conducting more experiments, the wormholes may reach an enough stable configuration and it could be possible for a wormhole to sustain bigger quantities of mass and eventually a human being.  Even though, a barrier to this phenomenon would be all the restrictions that exist when you are working with human beings. It would be terrific if a human goes into a wormhole and the wormhole collapse, what would happen to that person? Could the person be rescued or will the process be completely irreversible? There are a lot of risks that this phenomenon could lead to if it is not worked with all the precautions that it requires. After some experiments conducted concerning this topic, Butcher said:  

“These results tentatively suggest that a macroscopic traversable wormhole might be sustained by its own Casimir energy, providing a mechanism for faster-than-light communication and closed causal curves.” (O’Neill)

The invention of a wormhole that could sustain from its start to its end a human being sounds too good to be real for the moment. Undoubtedly, if it happens to be real it would be one of the greatest inventions and discoveries of all times, if not the greatest. 

Work Cited

O’Neill, Ian. “Wormhole Time Travel 'Possible' (If You're a Photon)”. Discovery News. Discovery Communications. 21 May 2014. Web. 28 Nov. 2014.

Launelly M Rosa Rosado: The fascinating thing about reflection

Maybe you've ever wondered why you look backwards on a spoon or why you can see your reflection in a mirror, or on the water’s surface. All these phenomena occur due to reflection. In this short article there are submitted some extraordinary things that due to reflections effect occurring.

In first place it is important to emphasize the definition of reflection. “Reflection is the change in direction of a wave front at an interface between two different media so that the wave front returns into the medium from which it originated. Common examples include the reflection of light, sound and water waves.” The law of reflection says that for specular reflection the angle at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected. The reflection has three important laws; 1. “The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflection surface at the point of the incidence lie in the same plane.” 2.”The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal is equal to the angle which the reflected ray makes to the same normal.”3.”The reflected ray and the incident ray are on the opposite sides of the normal.”

What these laws mean is; when light strikes the interface between two transparent media homogeneous and isotropic, a portion of the incident beam is reflected and remains in the medium from which it came and the other part is transferred to another medium. The angle θ1 formed by the incident ray and the normal N to the interface at the point of incidence is called the angle of incidence; the angle between the reflected ray and the normal θ1 'is called the angle of reflection. The reflected beam is in the same plane as the incident and the normal at the impingement point, but on the side opposite to this normal; the reflection angle θ1 'equals the angle of incidence θ1:  θ1 '= θ1. In front of a plane mirror image is right because it retains the same position; virtually because it looks as if in the mirror (the actual picture is being received on a screen) and is symmetric because apparently it is the same distance from the mirror. The maximum mirrors are the surfaces on which the fraction of light that bounces.

On the other hand there are different types of reflections. One of these reflections is the specular reflection, this occurs when a ray of light and is incident on a polished surface (mirror) it changes its direction without changing the medium through which it propagates, we say that the light beam is reflected. Exactly as stated above in the previous laws. This behavior was first discovered through careful observation and measurement by Hero of Alexandria. During this reflection is lost (absorbed or dispersed) a significant amount of light. Best mirrors reflect 95% of incident light and the common mirrors only between 80 and 85%. 

In another way, another form of reflection is the diffuse reflection. Opposed to the specular reflection the diffuse reflection appears in the rough surface. The reflected rays come out in all directions, because it’s at different points and may be different, producing a diffuse reflection. This kind of thinking does not generate images but is very important since it allows most opaque objects from different angles. I think that's what happens when you look in a spoon and that not having a flat surface and concave if this is due to the curvature, the light rays reflected reaching out toward a point called the focus and thus presents an inverted image.

In conclusion, we can determine that this process of reflection of light is a phenomenon of optical type which is very important in our lives for the simple fact that thanks to it we can perceive many of the objects that exist and that are all around us.

Ruth N. Lespier Hernandez: The Truth behind Friction

In all the objects we have present in our reaching we can see that without friction, it will be uneasy for a certain object to stay in its position without slipping. In many physics problems we assume there is no friction to make the problem easier but the reality is that there will always be friction. In mathematical purposes we see that friction is proportional and perpendicular to the normal force. As we know, we are usually provided with a table of the coefficient of frictions for both rough and smooth surfaces [1]. The interval in which the coefficients take place is usually 0 to 1, but as everything else in science and in math there will always be an exception. The science world usually starts with making assumptions of certain theories to then proceed to the experimentation to see if it passes as a law or now. 

What happens if you are not provided with the table of coefficients of friction? You can always assume it’s in the interval (0, 1) and see if it’s less or greater than the Normal force by how rough or smooth the surface is. The rougher the surface is than greater the force you need to produce movement and the lesser force you need to keep the object at its stationary position [1]. The case for smooth surfaces is opposite to those of rough surfaces. When the surface in which the object lies is a smooth surface then the force you’ll need to move the object will be less than its normal force and to keep the object at its stationary position then the force needed will be greater than its normal force. The coefficient of friction is a number which represents the friction between two surfaces. Between two equal surfaces, the coefficient of friction will be the same, it’s a constant only for a given pair of sliding materials under a given set of ambient conditions and varies for different materials and conditions.

However, we can use these definitions and known theorems of friction to create a new approach. A general idea that can be used in many engineering disciplines under certain, but common conditions. 

The proposed idea consist of neglecting the existence of the coefficient of static friction when 0.9 ≤μs ≤ 1, specifically when calculating frictional forces. Let’s begin with the mathematical explanation for frictional force which is: Ffr= μs FN. So for small values of μs, we will have almost identical values of Normal Force. For example: if μs = 0.95 and FN =3N, the Ffr= 2.85N, almost the same as the original Normal Force. Therefore for ranges very close to this interval of 0.9 ≤μs ≤ 1, one will have a percent of error around 5%.  

Some benefits from this assumptions are mainly that it is practical, because many engineers can estimate their Friction Forces faster. It can also be proved mathematically (like discussed above) that under certain conditions this is true and facilitates calculations. That it can be applied to different surfaces as long as μs is between intervals stated. 

Future work can include further study of the coefficient of kinetic friction, and how it can be analyzed so under certain conditions it can be negligible or easier to calculate under special cases. 

References:

[1] Giancoli, Douglas C. Physics for Scientists & Engineers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000. Print.

Gabriel E. Colón Reyes: Life on Other Planets

Astronomy is the branch of physics that studies the science that deals with the moon, planets, stars and the universe beyond Earth, as defined by Word Reference. According to BBC News, recent astronomical studies have shown one of Saturn’s moons, Mimas, has been found to possibly have great amounts of water. It has been found that Mimas experiences a wobble-like behavior, which is thought to be provoked by a crater called Hercschel Crater, which is about one third of the size of this moon. However, it is not possible that this wobble-like behavior is produced by the collision of the asteroid that made said crater because this behavior is not proportional to the consequences of the crash of an asteroid the size of the crater. A hypothesis made by researchers is that Mimas has a subterranean sea. These researchers believe that Mimas has an ocean within itself. "When we saw this wobbling, the first thing we thought of was an ocean," said Dr. Radwan Tajeddine, one of the lead researchers of Mimas. This is one of the first speculations made of Mimas and could prove to be very important in further studies of it. Furthermore, Prof Chris Lintott, an astrophysicist at the University of Oxford stated, "If the ocean is really there, we're getting to the point where it's just completely standard for icy moons to have substantial bodies of water inside - and that could have interesting implications for how many of these things could support life." With this, Lintott is inciting the idea that life could be possible in Mimas if many things were to fall in place, such as the availability of water and oxygen. This development is huge in the space industry because it raises the question, Could life be possible on this moon in Saturn? Studies have shown that water is one of the most important, if not the most important necessity of human beings. The fact that water is thought to be in this moon provides reason for studies of this moon and research opportunities of it. Scientists would most definitely want to know if life is possible in Mimas because if this were possible then it would revolutionize the way we think of space. If life could be possible in Mimas, why can’t it be possible in other asteroids or moons in space? This really is impressive because it is an alternative as a place to live in the occurrence of a cataclysmic event. Of course the way to get there would take time to develop, but just imagine! If Earth by any chance were to experience an event, which could lead to the death of much of humankind, this could be a feasible place for people to live in. If research deems this place worthy of human life, it could be possible to construct certain facilities on Mimas in order for humans to coexist with the environment of this moon. This is all speculation though, but the idea is just amazing. Much research is needed in order to prove these ideas true, but the reward of this would be humongous. It would literally be another place in space where people could exist without problems or lack of supplements from the environment. Of course, this is all contingent on the research and findings of studies in Mimas. Studies of Mimas take place in the present. 

References

- “Online Language Dictionaries." Astronomy. Web. 1 Dec. 2014. 

- Webb, Jonatahan. "Death Star Moon Is 'wonky or Watery'" BBC News. 16 Oct. 2014. Web. 1 Dec. 2014.

Paola Gómez Padilla: Listening Meteor Showers

Meteor showers are something relatively “new” for science. Scientifics started studying them like 150 years ago. Before that, they were consider to be: “stars falling from the sky like rain” and “an atmospheric phenomenon”. Today, we know that meteors are a flash of light seen when a debris, or meteoroid, passes through our atmosphere. The meteors leave a trail formed by the flow of gases and the material they vaporize in their way. This trail is what make the “rain of stars” visible to us from planet Earth. However, this meteors can reflect radio way in the same way that the ionosphere is able to propagate transmissions between ham-radio operators. 

The ionosphere is known to reflect frequencies transparent to frequencies in the FM broadcast. This frequencies, which are short-wavelengths radio signals, can travel through the Earth’s atmosphere in straight lines. This means that a listener beyond the horizon will not be able to be reached by such frequencies. Nonetheless, the reflections can be signaled far away due to ionization of diverse layers in the upper atmosphere. This means that when a meteoroid vaporizes passing through the atmosphere, it can ionize air molecules in the path which can form expanding columns. The resulting ions are able to scatter and reflect radio waves, which generally last for few seconds due to rapid dispersion. At the lowest layer of the ionosphere, tiny particles vaporizes while larger particles flame higher up. Such meteors are known to reflect signals to farther transmitters due to the flame produced. 

On Earth, this meteor showers can be signaled by using a FM reception with no nearby broadcast, preferably lower than 91.1 MHz. Thanks to technological advances, with some materials easy to collect, in home or in a nearby store, like a stereo receiver radio and a computer program, we can do more than see a meteor shower. We can listen to it and also, record this beautiful event, even on daylight or cloudy nights, when we can’t see the meteors. This have a magnificent effect. The observation of a much known meteor shower, call Leonids. This was the latest meteor shower occurred, and we could listen to it, or to any other meteor shower.

We need a stereo receiver radio, an FM Yagi antenna, a computer, a male-male 1/4-inch audio cable, a program that can have a sound input and analyze the data, and speakers or headphones to listen to it. First, we have to turn on the radio to a frequency that don’t have any station at the moment (just static playing on the radio) while keeping the antenna horizontal orientation. Connect the audio cable into the headphones output of the radio, and into the microphone input of the computer. Open the program and start to record. When a meteor passes, its trail will reflect the radio waves, and it will produce an audible a peak on the wave shown at the program, making simultaneously a sound, like a note of a piano, but a little bit harsh. We have to adjust the receiver's volume until peaks of audio are under the maximum threshold of the radio strip chart. Two very useful programs for this experiment are Audacity and Radio-SkyPipe II.